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Critics from environmental organisations and civil society have described the current legal interpretation as a “simplification that fails to respect the Aravallis’ complex ecology”, warning that it could gradually weaken the shield that the mountain system provides against desertification, water scarcity, and biodiversity loss.

International development partners, including the World Bank, have also entered the picture with initiatives designed to boost jobs and trade, although such efforts are longer-term in nature and their impact on immediate job creation is still unfolding.

Experts argue that meeting Nepal’s 2045 net-zero target and Sustainable Development Goal 7 – affordable and clean energy for all – will require a fundamental rethink of biogas policy.

Nepal’s efforts are guided by the Human Trafficking and Transportation (Control) Act of 2007, which imposes up to 20 years’ imprisonment for offenders.

Long-term climate risk, particularly heat exposure, also carries socio-economic consequences, threatening jobs, livelihoods and economic growth if unchecked.

At the heart of the reform is a graded penalty structure designed to deter non-compliance. According to provisions in the bill, institutions found violating regulatory standards could face fines starting at ₹10 lakh.

The minister said that the government is also pursuing new free trade agreements and working to improve the utilisation of existing FTAs.

The case has sparked alarm about shrinking civic space, erosion of rule of law and misuse of cybercrime legislation to criminalise dissent.